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Research Article | | Peer-Reviewed

Geochemical Characterization of Rasulpur - Subarnarekha River Mouths Estuarine Complex, EC of India: Provenance, Palaeo Weathering and Depositional Environment

Priyanka Dey Guha*,  Snehalata Mukherjee,  Ashwin Kumar Sahoo,  Subhankar Dutta,  Adukadukkam Anil Kumar,  Cheruvathoor Vannathan Gopalan
Published in Earth Sciences (Volume 15, Issue 1)
Received: 30 August 2025     Accepted: 9 October 2025     Published: 2 February 2026
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Abstract

Major and trace element geochemistry of sediments is a very useful tool for understanding the provenance, intensity of weathering, tectonic settings, and depositional environment of the sediments. Sediments collected from different geomorphic domains (onshore and nearshore) of Rasulpur to Subarnarekha River mouths estuarine complex, East coast of India, were analyzed for their geochemical (major, trace contents) and mineralogical characteristics to determine their provenance, compositional maturity, paleo-weathering condition, and depositional environment. From geochemical studies, it is evident that the samples from the nearshore area suffered more weathering than the onshore samples. Geochemistry of the sediments suggests the protolith of the area to be of intermediate to felsic source rocks. A relative increase in the Al2O3/TiO2 ratio in sediments also suggests that they are derived mainly from intermediate to felsic source rocks. A strong positive correlation between Fe2O3, MnO, K2O, MgO, CaO, P2O5, and major oxides with respect to Al2O3 indicates that they are associated with micaceous/clay minerals. The Index of Compositional Variability (ICV) indicating low compositional and mineralogical maturity of the sediments. The Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) value clearly pointing towards intense to intermediate weathering in the source area sediments. Similarly, Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW) results also supporting the same trend of weathering. The results of Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA) suggesting moderate destruction of feldspars during source weathering, transport, sedimentation, and diagenesis. The Ternary plot of A-CN-K and the binary plot of CIA/ICV also suggest that both geomorphological domains are immature in nature and suffered intense to moderate weathering. Trace-element concentrations in sediments result from the competing influence of provenance, weathering, diagenesis, and sediment sorting. The felsic province is also corroborated by elevated values of Ba, K, and Sr. EPMA analysis reveals the presence of heavy minerals comprising Ilmenite, garnet as major constituents followed by sphene and rutile. Other minerals include sphene, epidote, amphibole, pyroxene, biotite, apatite, chlorite, tourmaline, muscovite, and alumino-silicate. The concentration of TiO2 in Ilmenitedepicting a metamorphic signature with an igneous source. Micro-textural studies reveal different types of surface features of the grains, the various micro features have been produced by different transportational processes under different environmental conditions. Based on all geochemical and mineralogical data and different plots, it is evident that the sediments from both geomorphological domains are immature in nature and suffered intense to moderate weathering derived from mixed igneous and metamorphic sources.

Published in Earth Sciences (Volume 15, Issue 1)
DOI 10.11648/j.earth.20261501.12
Page(s) 10-29
Creative Commons

This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.

Copyright

Copyright © The Author(s), 2026. Published by Science Publishing Group
Previous article
Keywords

Major Oxides, Trace Element, CIA, ICV, Rasulpur - Subarnarekha Complex

1. Introduction
The geochemistry of sediments is useful to determine the intensity of weathering, tectonic settings, depositional history and associated provenance of the sediments
[2, 5, 8, 10, 15]
.
Due to the immobile nature of elements during the sedimentary process, major and trace element geochemistry provides more precise information on the study of provenance, tectonics, and paleoweathering than petrographic study
[1, 8, 19]
. Further, the trace element (i.e. Zr, Nb, Sc, Y, Cr) concentrations in the sediments are useful for discriminating provenance
[14, 15, 40]
due to their relatively low mobility during the sedimentary processes. Also, these elements are believed to be transferred quantitatively into detrital sediments during weathering and transportation; thus, their concentration can be useful in elucidating their parent rock characteristics
[2-4, 6]
.
In the present study, an attempt has been made to identify the possible sources along with the weathering pattern of sediment samples collected from different geomorphic domains (onshore and nearshore) of the Rasulpur to Subarnarekha River mouth area. The samples have been studied in detail for comprehensive geochemistry.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and EDX are also carried out to understand the micro-textures developed at different sedimentary stages by mineral grains, as well as for the characterization of depositional environments
[11, 22, 24, 29]
. SEM is a convenient and widespread technique for illustrating the morphologies of materials with a spatial resolution below 1 nm.
1.1. Study Area
The present study area covers parts of Midnapur and Balasore littoral tracts along the Kanthi coastal plain and Subarnarekha delta plain, occurring in West Bengal and Odisha states, respectively. The study area falls within Survey of India toposheetsnos
 [12]
. 74 O/6, 10, 13, and 14 and is bounded in the northeast by the Rasulpur River (Midnapur) (87° 53' 9.6" E, 21° 47' 24" N, 87° 54' 3.6" E, 21° 46' 37.2" N) and in the southwest by the Subarnarekha River (Balasore) (87° 24' 3.6" E, 21° 34' 1.2" N, 87° 24' 39.6" E, 21° 32' 38.4" N) along a 65 km long coastal tract in the west. It is located in the East Medinipur District of West Bengal and Balasore District, Odisha (Figure 1).
Geologically, this is the coastal stretch of the Indo-Gangetic plain situated between the tectonically active Ganga Delta and the wave-dominated Subarnarekha Estuary. The area is drained by the Subarnarekha River flowing from north to south in the western part and the Hooghly River in the eastern part. It is mostly covered by Quaternary sediments and comprises recent alluvial deposits belonging to the Balasore-Contai coastal plain. The area exhibits smooth, nearly flat topography, gently sloping towards the sea. The lowest point noted in the district is around Bel (4.5m above MSL; 73 O/6), while the highest point noted is near Dhangikusum (338 m above MSL; 73 J/10). The oldest Quaternary deposits exposed in the area are of Pleistocene age, composed of fragments of quartz, phyllite, granite pebbles, and occasionally lateritized gravels. The Quaternary sediments in the area are mostly fluvial in origin and have been deposited by the Subarnarekha, Kasai, and Rupnarayan rivers.
The Sijua Formation constitutes the sediments of older alluvium, comprising hard clay and silt impregnated with caliche concretions. The overlying sediments of Basudevpur and Panskura formations constitute older flood regimes. Towards the sea, the underlying sediments become richer in arenaceous material, and on the beach area, clean dune sands of variable sizes are found to occur. The present-day floodplain deposits are composed of sand and silts of different layers. Geomorphic studies in the beach area have revealed that the process of beach formation is still in progress, and the shoreline is advancing, thereby exposing more and more land surfaces in the area. The area represents two distinct geomorphic provinces, namely (a) the upland area in the west and (b) the alluvial plains in the east. The district is not rich in minerals. Occurrences of fire clay (in Jarma), galena (in Gohalberia), mica (near Shiarbenda, Chakadoha, Dhenkia), ochre (in the northeast of Laobani), soapstone (in Khatkura and Kariaraha), and some gold dust from the Kasai River near Medinipur town are reported to be present. Estimated reserves of the deposits of the above-mentioned minerals are not known.
These surfaces primarily indicate fluvial sedimentary sequences during the Quaternary period (District Resource Map, Medinipur District). The Quaternary landscape of the Balasore area can be divided into several main geomorphic surfaces formed both due to erosional and aggradation processes. Bolgarh, the oldest geomorphic surface, is younger in age and forms a wide alluvial zone. This surface is also marked by a number of abandoned channels. Part of the fluvial facies of the Bankigarh Formation adjoining the Subarnarekha River is named the Subarnarekha surface/Formation, and its marine equivalent is termed the Basudevpur Formation. The Bankigarh surface is equated with a wide tidal flat, which at places is concealed under older longitudinal dunes with interdunal depressions. On the other hand, the recent tidal flat with recent sand dunes and the beach is equivalent to the Present-Day surface of the fluvial regime. Quaternary sediments represent both fluviatile and marine facies. Balasore, being a coastal district covered by Quaternary sediments, has some problems of marine incursions and poor geotechnical properties of the basement soil (District Resource Map, Balasore district). The Panskura Formation is exposed in toposheets nos. 73 O/6 & 13, and the Bankigarh Formation is exposed in toposheets no. 73 O/6. The geological map of the toposheets numbered 73 O/5, 6, 9, 10, 13 & 14 is given in Figure 2. A generalized stratigraphy of the study area is provided in Table 1 as per Chattopadhyay& Mukherjee (1975). In the eastern part of the Digha sector, flattened remnants of older dunes are present. In Dadanpatrabar and Junput sectors, 'clay windows' are exposed during the monsoon. Steeply sloping irregular elongated dome-shaped sandy ridges of varying heights are present. Along the coastal belt from Digha to Dadanpatrabar, remnants of the older dune complex (semi-compact, feebly laminated, yellowish-brown sand), originally serving as beachfront dunes, are exposed and getting covered by the younger aeolian deposits from the beach face currently
[13]
.
Table 1. Stratigraphic succession of lithounit of the Purba-Medinipur Coastal Region, WestBengal.

Lithology

Geological Unit

Age

Sands and silts in alternate layers

Present day flood plaindeposits.

Holocene

Fine to medium sands, greyish brown in colour

Present day beach deposits

Holocene

Sands, white to greyish yellow in colour, well sorted

Recent Sand dune Deposit

Holocene

Sands, silts and clays deposited in different flood regimes, no oxidation effect

Bankigarh Formation

Holocene

Sands with silts, clays, associated with Fenodulesand Clay

Panskura Formation

Holocene

Greenish grey clay, impregnated with calichenodules

Sijua Formation

Upper Pleistocene to Lower Holocene
The present day deposits include spit, active beach, berm, fluvial and aeolian deposits. It includes the landmass running parallel to the coastline and consists of very fine white to grey sands (beach sands) occasionally mixed with clay. Holocene sediments with parallel bedding are seen near Talsari area.
Figure 1. Location map of Study Area Rasulpur river mouth to Subarnarekha River Mouth, East coast India.
Figure 2. Geological Map of the Study Area Rasulpur river mouth to Subarnarekha River Mouth, East coast India.
Figure 3. Onshore sample location map of Study Area (Rasulpur river mouth to Subarnarekha River Mouth, East coast India.
Figure 4. Near shore sample location map of Study Area (Rasulpur river mouth to Subarnarekha River Mouth, East coast India.
1.2. Methodology
Major oxides and trace elements were analyzed by XRF (X-ray fluorescence spectrometry technique) at the Chemical Laboratory, Kolkata, GSI, of the samples collected from different geomorphic domains of onshore and near shore (0-10 m isobaths) (tabulated in Table 2; Figures 3, 4). The samples were soaked in water for 24 hours to remove salt and then treated with 6% dilute H2O2 and dilute HCl to remove organic matter and carbonates. The pre-processed and homogenized samples were analyzed. Subsequently, the samples were dried in a hot air oven at 60°C. Furthermore, the samples (approximately 15g) were pulverized (homogenized) to minus 200 mesh size using a planetary ball mill (Retsch PM400) with an agate bowl and balls. The pulverized samples were then pressed into the form of pressed pellets with a diameter of 40mm in an aluminum cup over a bed of boric acid by applying a pressure of 20 tonnes using a Hydraulic press pelletizer (Insmart Systems). The prepared pellets were analyzed in a 2.4 kW WD sequential X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (PANalytical Magix-2424) equipped with PX1, PE 002, Ge 111, LiF 200, and LiF 220 diffracting crystals, as well as flow, scintillation, and duplex detectors. Samples were dried at 100°C and heated at 900°C to determine the percentage of loss on ignition (LOI) using standard procedures.
Onshore and nearshore samples representing all the geomorphic units have been selected for SEM & EDX study. Coarse, medium, and fine sand are chosen from each sample, and mono-crystalline quartz grains and heavy minerals are examined to study the morphological characteristics. The sand fractions were selected and treated chemically following standard procedures
[20-22]
to remove coatings of iron oxide and organic matter. The studies were carried out in the SEM Lab, Geological Survey of India, Central Headquarters, Kolkata. About fifteen to twenty grains were selected randomly from each sample for SEM & EDX study. Semi-quantitative energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) analysis is performed, which is attached to the SEM. Analyses are conducted with an accelerating voltage of 15-20 kV and an electron beam current of 12 nA. Finally, the mounted grains were analyzed under a Scanning Electron Microscope, and photomicrographs were taken to study surface micro-texture to decipher the depositional environments, the mode of transport, and the diagenetic processes of coastal sediments based on the different microtextures on the grains.
2. Results and Discussion
2.1. Major Oxides and Trace Element Geochemistry
The major oxides concentrations of all the onshore and nearshore samples show the same trend. The analyzed samples are mostly rich in SiO2 (67% to 87%; avg. 77% and 51.86% to 88.52% with an avg. 72.31%, respectively), followed by Al2O3 and Fe2O3 (12.40% to 5.74%, and 5.98% to 1.35%; avg. 9.08%, and 3.41%, respectively, and 17.84% to 5.17%, and 9.06% to 0.96%; avg. 11.32%, and 4.08%, respectively) (Tables 2, 3; Figure 5). The concentrations of K2O, CaO, Na2O, MgO, TiO2, P2O5, and MnO are generally low compared to other elements (ranging from 3.60% to 1.76%, 3.30% to 0.95%, 1.95% to 1.14%, 2.82% to 0.21%, 0.40% to 0.05%, 0.14% to 0.01%, and 0.05% to 0.14%, respectively, with an average of 2.68%, 1.98%, 1.55%, 1.15%, 0.87%, 0.16%, and 0.07%, respectively, and 3.84% to 1.80%, 3.66% to 0.62%, 2.39% to 0.77%, 3.27% to 0.19%, 2.46% to 0.08%, 0.20% to 0.03%, and 0.0% to 0.14%, respectively, with an average of 2.85%, 1.61%, 1.39%, 1.56%, 0.93%, 0.09%, and 0.07%, respectively) (Tables 2, 3; Figure 6). The dominance of SiO2 in the analyzed sediments is a result of the presence of free quartz derived from the felsic-dominated terrains. The total major oxide content is slightly higher in onshore sediments (98%) compared to nearshore sediments (96.20%). The major oxide composition in the onshore and nearshore samples shows a more or less similar trend, which is also nearly similar to the average concentrations of the PAAS (Post-Archaean Australian Shale)
[43]
(Figures 5, 6).
Figure 5. Concentration of Major oxides of surface sediments samples for (1) Onshore and (2) Near shore sediment from Rasulpur to Subarnarekha River Mouth.
Figure 6. Concentration of Major oxides of surface sediments samples for (1) Onshore and (2) Near shore sediment from Rasulpur to Subarnarekha River Mouth.
The K2O and Na2O contents, and their higher ratios (K2O/Na2O avg. 1.73, 2.4; K2O/Na2O > 1), suggest that K-feldspar dominates over plagioclase (albite) feldspar. K2O enrichment relates to the presence of illite as a common clay mineral in the samples, which is higher in nearshore samples (Tables 2, 3).
Table 2. Major oxides concentration onshore samples from Rasulpur to Subarnarekha River Mouth (in wt %).

Sl No

SampleNo

SiO2 (%)

Al2O3 (%)

Fe2O3 (T)(%)

MnO (%)

MgO (%)

CaO (%)

Na2O (%)

K2O (%)

TiO2 (%)

P2O5 (%)

Total

Al2O3/TiO2

K2O/Na2O

1

P-1(0)

69.64

11.49

4.27

0.10

2.23

3.30

1.61

2.59

0.82

0.19

96.24

14.012

1.609

2

P-1(1)

66.86

12.40

5.98

0.12

2.18

3.16

1.63

3.44

0.54

0.23

96.54

22.963

2.110

3

P-5(0)

74.53

8.90

3.86

0.09

1.44

2.95

1.24

2.21

1.14

0.18

96.54

7.807

1.782

4

P-5(1)

72.43

9.55

5.30

0.14

1.39

2.02

1.39

2.49

2.11

0.37

97.19

4.526

1.791

5

P-7(0)

68.80

11.85

5.71

0.11

2.03

3.05

1.58

3.13

1.26

0.20

97.72

9.405

1.981

6

P-7(1)

78.21

7.75

3.27

0.08

0.94

1.86

1.54

2.25

1.33

0.14

97.37

5.827

1.461

7

P-10(0)

71.21

10.72

4.65

0.09

1.57

2.56

1.66

3.09

1.29

0.17

97.01

8.310

1.861

8

P-10(1)

76.18

8.94

3.33

0.06

1.06

1.81

1.49

2.87

0.81

0.14

96.69

11.037

1.926

9

P-11A(0)

69.14

11.76

4.59

0.10

2.00

2.67

1.50

2.77

0.86

0.20

95.59

13.674

1.847

10

P-11A(1)

73.55

11.07

3.58

0.06

1.26

1.69

1.83

3.42

0.43

0.14

97.03

25.744

1.869

11

P-13(0)

76.25

9.82

2.79

0.05

0.91

1.82

1.95

3.42

0.56

0.12

97.69

17.536

1.754

12

P-13(1)

80.17

7.39

2.39

0.05

0.66

1.34

1.46

2.81

0.81

0.12

97.20

9.123

1.925

13

P-15(0)

77.45

8.32

2.78

0.06

0.86

1.77

1.71

2.79

0.64

0.15

96.53

13.000

1.632

14

P-15(1)

76.52

7.42

4.67

0.13

1.03

2.42

1.14

2.13

2.82

0.40

98.68

2.631

1.868

15

P-16(0)

72.38

11.26

3.94

0.09

1.15

2.30

1.91

3.60

0.70

0.15

97.48

16.086

1.885

16

P-16(1)

78.51

8.71

3.35

0.06

1.00

1.80

1.50

2.92

0.68

0.15

98.68

12.809

1.947

17

P-17/5 (0)

83.00

7.36

2.21

0.03

0.86

1.42

1.44

2.08

0.53

0.07

99.00

13.887

1.444

18

P-17/1

86.61

5.74

1.79

0.03

0.66

1.29

1.17

1.76

0.59

0.06

99.70

9.729

1.504

19

P-18/0 (0)

84.98

6.67

1.71

0.02

0.58

1.21

1.40

2.11

0.37

0.06

99.11

18.027

1.507

20

P-18/1

83.28

7.91

1.55

0.02

0.46

0.95

1.74

2.54

0.28

0.06

98.79

28.250

1.460

21

P-19/3 (0)

83.78

7.14

1.96

0.02

0.60

1.05

1.43

2.13

0.42

0.07

98.60

17.000

1.490

22

P-19/2

84.21

7.48

1.35

0.01

0.46

1.02

1.73

2.46

0.21

0.05

98.98

35.619

1.422

23

P-20/1

84.95

6.50

1.81

0.04

0.67

1.33

1.51

2.11

0.77

0.05

99.74

8.442

1.397

24

P-20/3

84.83

6.98

1.56

0.02

0.45

1.02

1.68

2.36

0.29

0.04

99.23

24.069

1.405

25

P-21/1

84.63

7.17

1.30

0.01

0.48

0.96

1.40

2.37

0.28

0.06

98.66

25.607

1.693

26

P-21/3

87.25

6.15

0.96

0.00

0.19

0.62

1.53

2.49

0.08

0.05

99.32

76.875

1.627

27

P-22/1

88.52

5.17

1.19

0.01

0.46

0.92

1.23

1.80

0.27

0.03

99.60

19.148

1.463

28

P-22/3

85.67

7.04

0.97

0.01

0.32

0.86

1.66

2.59

0.17

0.05

99.34

41.412

1.560

29

P-23/1

80.76

7.58

3.16

0.08

1.06

2.07

1.40

2.10

1.52

0.09

99.82

4.987

1.500

30

P-23/3

77.14

9.81

3.37

0.06

1.29

1.90

1.83

2.51

0.79

0.11

98.81

12.418

1.372

31

P-24/1

81.62

7.80

2.47

0.05

0.85

1.72

1.69

2.26

1.02

0.09

99.57

7.647

1.337

32

P-24/5

81.96

7.45

2.59

0.06

0.94

1.87

1.44

2.17

0.99

0.09

99.56

7.525

1.507

33

P-25/1

81.81

6.50

3.36

0.09

1.14

2.15

1.34

1.93

1.72

0.08

100.12

3.779

1.440

34

P-25/3

84.27

6.85

1.80

0.04

0.68

1.41

1.50

2.22

0.55

0.06

99.38

12.455

1.480

35

PASS

62.8

18.9

6.5

0.11

2.2

1.3

1.2

3.7

1

0.16

97.87

18.900

3.083
Table 3. Major oxides concentration Near shore samples from Rasulpur to Subarnarekha River Mouth (in wt %).

SL NO

Sample No

SiO2 (%)

Al2O3 (%)

Fe2O3 (T)(%)

MnO (%)

MgO (%)

CaO (%)

Na2O (%)

K2O (%)

TiO2 (%)

P2O5 (%)

Total

Al2O3/TiO2

K2O/Na2O

1

BS-05

54.34

17.18

7.62

0.14

3.09

2.04

0.82

3.67

1.03

0.15

90.08

16.680

4.476

2

BS-19

56.61

16.99

6.40

0.11

3.11

2.49

0.96

3.50

0.98

0.15

91.30

17.337

3.646

3

BS-28

54.95

17.48

6.73

0.12

3.06

2.20

1.14

3.49

1.04

0.14

90.35

16.808

3.061

4

BS-39

51.97

17.84

8.54

0.13

3.27

1.53

0.77

3.74

1.06

0.15

89.00

16.830

4.857

5

BS-45

55.37

16.79

7.17

0.13

3.06

2.00

0.89

3.65

1.03

0.15

90.24

16.301

4.101

6

BS-51

53.97

17.56

7.71

0.13

3.20

1.82

0.85

3.77

1.03

0.14

90.18

17.049

4.435

7

BS-68

51.86

17.36

9.06

0.14

3.27

1.29

0.79

3.84

1.06

0.14

88.81

16.377

4.861

8

BS-35

53.81

17.74

7.81

0.12

3.14

1.86

0.92

3.59

1.03

0.14

90.16

17.223

3.902

9

BS-01

65.63

13.50

5.21

0.12

2.56

3.66

1.19

2.54

1.61

0.20

96.22

8.385

2.134

10

BS-01

73.44

11.77

4.43

0.09

1.20

1.85

1.87

2.93

2.36

0.11

100.05

4.987

1.567

11

BS-10

83.35

8.25

1.43

0.02

0.55

1.10

1.70

2.47

0.55

0.04

99.46

15.000

1.453

12

BS-22

84.84

6.35

2.60

0.02

0.32

0.84

1.47

2.21

0.46

0.06

99.17

13.804

1.503

13

BS-37

78.20

10.92

1.67

0.03

0.81

1.76

2.39

2.83

0.74

0.03

99.38

14.757

1.184

14

BS-43

79.66

9.61

2.41

0.03

0.85

1.50

1.84

2.43

0.78

0.07

99.18

12.321

1.321

15

BS-47

86.62

6.23

1.18

0.02

0.50

0.93

1.44

2.27

0.22

0.05

99.46

28.318

1.576

16

BS-52

83.30

6.92

2.30

0.06

0.78

1.74

1.46

2.12

1.09

0.03

99.80

6.349

1.452

17

BS-61

73.77

11.31

3.78

0.08

1.10

2.20

2.19

3.26

1.96

0.05

99.70

5.770

1.489

18

BS-66

77.88

8.77

3.99

0.10

1.04

2.12

1.62

2.38

2.46

0.05

100.41

3.565

1.469
The trace element compositions are quite variable but still comparable with the average compositions documented by
[37, 40]
. In the studied onshore sediments, the contents of large ion lithophile elements (LILE) like Ba and Sr vary from 393 to 717 ppm, 77 to 138 ppm, with an average of 567 ppm and 100.1 ppm respectively. The content of High Field Strength Elements (HFSE) like Y ranges from 80 to 8 ppm with an average of 28.04 ppm. Similarly, transition trace elements (TTE) like Sc, V, Cr, Ni, and Zn range from 4 to 12 ppm, 21 to 97 ppm, 36 to 370 ppm, 9 to 47 ppm, and 10 to 52 ppm with an average of 6.5 ppm, 56.0 ppm, 147 ppm, 26.0 ppm, and 30.0 ppm respectively (Table 4; Figure 7). In the nearshore sediments, the contents of large ion lithophile elements (LILE) like Ba and Sr vary from 410 to 801 ppm, 84 to 176 ppm, with an average of 577 ppm and 118 ppm respectively. The content of high field strength elements (HFSE) like Y ranges from 4 to 79 ppm with an average of 30.46 ppm. Similarly, transition trace elements (TTE) like Sc, V,Cr, Ni and Zn range from 4 to 24 ppm, 20 to 189 ppm, 17 to 276 ppm, 7 to 72ppm and 20 to 124 ppm with an average of 11 ppm, 88.5 ppm, 128.16 ppm and 31.6 ppm, 46.54 ppm, respectively (Tables 4, 5; Figure 8). The total trace element content is slightly higher in nearshore sediments (1476 ppm) than in onshore sediments (1395 ppm). For the studied samples, the higher concentration of Ba may indicate the presence of felsic rocks, in association with K and Sr. The enrichment of K and Sr may be due to the effect of potash metasomatism, where Ca has been leached out, replacing K within the feldspar lattice in association with Sr. The low concentrations of Cu, Co, Ni, and Ga indicate the absence of ferromagnesian minerals in the source
[27, 33, 40]
, which is reflected by the absence of mafic and ultramafic rocks in the source terrain.
Table 4. Trace Elements concentration of Onshore samples from Rasulpur to Subarnarekha River Mouth (Results are in ppm).

SL NO

Sample No

Ba

Co

Cr

Cu

Ga

Nb

Ni

Pb

Sc

Sr

V

Y

Zn

Zr

Total

Zr/Sc

1

P-1(1)

553

16

136

16

10

10

42

24

8

111

64

21

52

440

1503

55

2

P-1(0)

435

12

132

12

10

14

28

18

7

96

63

31

51

365

1274

52

3

P-5(1)

644

12

248

7

8

29

47

23

6

83

87

72

46

887

2199

148

4

P-5(0)

393

8

142

11

7

16

19

12

10

77

65

40

35

557

1392

56

5

P-7(1)

519

8

166

13

7

19

19

16

5

92

63

43

37

782

1789

156

6

P-7(0)

562

13

177

11

9

18

43

18

12

93

84

39

40

486

1605

41

7

P-10(1)

641

10

230

<1

5

5

26

41

7

111

61

25

31

189

1382

27

8

P-10(0)

630

13

208

<1

9

15

23

33

8

138

79

45

44

507

1752

63

9

P-11A(1)

674

10

146

<1

5

3

14

44

8

129

52

11

27

50

1173

6

10

P-11A(0)

546

11

158

<1

7

7

13

27

8

109

72

30

41

225

1254

28

11

P-13(1)

613

8

195

11

6

12

41

15

7

78

45

21

26

400

1478

57

12

P-13(0)

696

7

154

12

7

8

34

15

5

83

47

16

25

201

1310

40

13

P-15(1)

717

13

370

4

7

36

37

19

10

85

97

80

50

1502

3027

150

14

P-15(0)

607

10

117

14

6

11

26

14

6

79

48

21

25

281

1265

47

15

P-16(1)

588

9

164

13

6

11

45

15

6

77

55

19

27

213

1248

36

16

P-16(0)

683

11

169

13

8

11

38

17

5

97

55

21

29

256

1413

51

17

P-17/5 (0)

473

6

57

3

7

9

15

15

5

114

40

18

17

211

990

42

18

P-17/1

438

1

73

1

6

8

11

13

4

96

38

17

13

245

964

61

19

P-18/0 (0)

490

4

51

4

7

8

13

17

4

114

29

12

10

136

899

34

20

P-18/1

564

5

45

11

7

6

9

22

4

126

25

12

10

136

982

34

21

P-19/3 (0)

471

4

54

6

7

9

10

16

4

104

33

15

12

169

914

42

22

P-19/2

523

2

36

3

7

6

11

17

4

126

21

8

10

84

858

21

23

P-20/1

487

4

84

2

6

10

11

15

5

114

45

19

13

301

1116

60

24

P-20/3

542

5

50

1

8

7

10

18

4

118

27

9

10

124

933

31

25

P-21/1

540

4

75

7

7

6

16

12

4

110

25

6

10

95

917

24

26

P-21/3

554

2

17

1

5

5

7

15

4

113

20

11

10

63

827

16

27

P-22/1

410

1

46

1

5

6

9

10

4

84

26

15

10

91

718

23

28

P-22/3

572

1

42

2

5

5

9

13

4

122

20

4

10

75

884

19

29

P-23/1

557

5

149

10

10

16

17

34

5

131

71

41

32

607

1685

121

30

P-23/3

584

12

87

26

9

11

28

23

7

153

58

24

33

301

1356

43

31

P-24/1

560

6

106

17

9

12

15

25

5

136

54

30

40

430

1445

86

32

P-24/5

522

8

115

4

8

12

15

20

7

133

59

24

22

342

1291

49

33

P-25/1

521

7

183

6

8

15

19

19

8

118

75

45

39

558

1621

70

34

P-25/3

520

7

62

2

7

8

12

21

6

122

36

15

14

170

1002

28

35

PASS

650

-

110

28

17.5

19

55

20

16

200

150

27

67

210

1570

13
Table 5. Trace Elementsconcentration of Nearshoresamples from Rasulpur to Subarnarekha River Mouth (Results are in ppm).

SL NO

Sample No

Ba

Co

Cr

Cu

Ga

Nb

Ni

Pb

Sc

Sr

V

Y

Zn

Zr

Total

Zr/Sc

1

BS-05(G)

602

19

148

57

20

19

59

21

24

99

160

35

102

272

1637

11

2

BS-19(G)

604

21

143

61

21

19

61

26

20

100

155

34

103

260

1628

13

3

BS-28(G)

588

15

153

42

19

19

50

20

17

105

139

40

88

372

1667

22

4

BS-39(G)

476

14

186

19

12

22

30

27

12

133

118

69

56

927

2101

77

5

BS-45(G)

607

19

148

56

19

19

57

23

18

100

152

35

97

218

1568

12

6

BS-51(G)

617

18

150

55

21

19

62

24

18

100

163

32

108

185

1572

10

7

BS-68(G)

602

22

165

79

21

20

72

19

24

92

189

30

124

147

1606

6

8

BS-35(G)

585

15

134

43

19

18

50

23

18

107

133

39

85

342

1611

19

9

BS-01(G)

594

20

156

61

20

20

64

26

23

96

183

33

110

207

1613

9

10

BS-01

698

11

260

10

12

28

28

35

11

144

109

74

36

1389

2845

126

11

BS-10

565

4

85

2

9

9

10

19

6

126

38

21

10

269

1173

45

12

BS-22

505

5

130

13

8

7

25

20

4

110

43

16

12

288

1186

72

13

BS-37

658

7

99

7

11

13

21

19

8

169

47

16

12

235

1322

29

14

BS-43

537

8

102

5

11

12

17

20

7

142

50

22

15

314

1262

45

15

BS-47

525

4

60

1

6

6

11

19

4

110

23

13

10

86

878

22

16

BS-52

525

3

123

3

9

12

13

16

7

126

55

29

22

378

1321

54

17

BS-61

801

7

244

9

11

22

33

30

7

176

95

50

28

801

2314

114

18

BS-66

659

12

276

12

11

23

33

26

7

144

109

79

36

1283

2710

183

19

PASS

650

-

110

28

17.5

19

55

20

16

200

150

27

67

210

1570

13
Figure 7. Concentration of Trace Elements of surface sediments samples for (3) Onshore and (4) Near shore sediment from Rasalpur to Subarnarekha River Mouth.
Figure 8. Concentration of Trace Elements of surface sediments samples for (3) Onshore and (4) Near shore sediment from Rasalpur to Subarnarekha River Mouth.
In order to compare sediments of different geomorphic domains, Al2O3 is used as a normalization factor as it is immobile in nature during diagenesis and metamorphism
[7]
. Major oxides of the studied onshore and nearshore samples were plotted against Al2O3 as depicted in Figure 9 In addition, average PAAS (Post-Archaean Australian Shale) values were extracted
[37, 40]
, respectively, and included in the plots for comparison purposes. Based on the average values, the nearshore samples exhibit almost similar major oxide abundances relative to PAAS.
Figure 9. Major Element vs Al2O3 bivariant plot showing distribution for Onshore and Near shore sediment from Rasulpur to Subarnarekha River Mouth.
Figure 10. Plot of SiO. 2 (reflective of quartz content) versus K2O+Na2O+Al2O3 (reflective of feldspar content), ii. Gavs Al2O3 bivariant plot showing distribution for Onshoreand Near shore sediment from Rasulpur to Subarnarekha River Mouth..
Onshore and offshore samples show a positive correlation between Fe2O3, MnO, K2O, MgO, CaO and P2O5 with respect to Al2O3. The strong positive correlation of these major oxides with Al2O3 indicates that they are associated with micaceous/clay minerals. TiO2 also shows positive correlation except for few samples. Whereas the strong negative correlation between SiO2 and Al2O3 indicates that the clay minerals in the clay fraction have been leached out during chemical weathering, whereas quartz has retained its composition due to its resistance to chemical weathering (Figure 9). At the same time, it is also noticed that there is no particular trend between Na2O and Al2O3. The strong positive correlation between K2O and Al2O3 may be because of the presence of K-feldspar and clay minerals such as illite within the sediments. The positive relationship between Ga and Al2O3 may be because of their occurrence together in feldspars and clay minerals (Figure 10).
2.2. Mineralogical Studies
Microtextures observed on anhedral (rounded, sub-rounded, and angular) quartz grains and the heavy minerals (Figure 11) suggest that the quartz grains and heavy minerals in the study area could be indicators of the action of dynamic agents and depositional processes, such as solution pits, etching, conchoidal fractures, irregular surfaces and depressions, linear and curved grooves, fracture planes, longitudinal cleavages, arcuate steps, and upturned plates, etc. (Figure 11). Solution pits and oriented etch pits are indications of chemical weathering, suggesting that the grains were present in marine environments for a long time, affecting older mechanical marks
[39]
.
Rounded grains and regular surfaces are produced due to mechanical processes and are reworked grains. Conchoidal fractures and V forms (linear or curved) are probably produced due to grain-to-grain collision. Intensive reworking processes occurring in high-energy environments such as the surf zone of the beach cause angular conchoidal fractures widely developed on grain surfaces. Linear and curved grooves are used to infer the wave action
[20]
. The chemical marks appear as oriented etch pits and oriented Vs affecting previous mechanical textures as well. Arcuate steps and upturned plates, which are cited as indicative of eolian environments
[21, 26]
.
EPMA analysis reveals the presence of heavy minerals (average 3.6% HM) comprising ilmenite and garnet as major constituents, followed by magnetite, sillimanite, sphene, epidote, hornblende, zircon, hypersthene, tourmaline, biotite, chlorite, and rutile. The mineral composition of garnet is almandine. The TiO2 content determines the degree of alteration in ilmenite. Highly altered ilmenite has a higher percentage of TiO2 (56.86%)
[17]
. Lower values of Al2O3 compared to MgO and MnO in each grain also confirm this (Frost et al., 1983). In ilmenite, the concentration of TiO2 helps in determining whether it is derived from an igneous or metamorphic source. The igneous source has TiO2 content ranging from 42% to 52%, whereas the metamorphic source has a mean value of TiO2 of 51%. In this study area, the TiO2 content ranges from 40.03% to 56.86%, suggesting the possibility of metamorphic ilmenite. The Subarnarekha River flows through the area, so the metamorphic associates from the nearby area could be the source of ilmenite. The ilmenite grains here are moderately altered since they show signs of alteration along grain boundaries, and the grains have angular edges. Chemical weathering may be another cause of alteration of these ilmenite grains. The considerably high values of FeO and Al2O3 in most of the garnets suggest that they are of almandine group. From EPMA, it may be concluded that altered ilmenite is the dominant type. It is the most abundant titanium-rich mineral in the study area, whereas almandine is the most abundant variety of garnet.
Figure 11. Morphology, surface features and micro textures of grains from SEM-EDX images of the study area.
2.3. Palaeo Weathering Conditions/ Weathering and Recycling and Depositional Environment
The use of major element geochemistry, in particular, should be treated with caution due to their possible mobility and redistribution during chemical weathering and diagenesis
[26, 29]
. However, it can be applied to determine the degree of alteration
[16, 30, 42]
. The chemical composition of the source rock, along with the duration of weathering and climatic conditions, plays a key role in defining the intensity of weathering. Several researchers around the world have documented that molecular proportions of mobile and immobile element oxides such as Na2O, CaO, K2O, and Al2O3 carry the signatures of the intensity of weathering
[18, 31]
.
Different schemes of weathering indices proposed by various researchers such as the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) by
[30]
, Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA) by
[16]
, Weathering Index of Parker (WIP), Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW) by
[18]
, and Index of Chemical Variability (ICV) by
[36]
are widely used. To decipher the degree of weathering, weathering indices like CIA and PIA are employed, and ICV is used to determine compositional maturity.
The Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) was calculated using the following formula defined by
[31]
: CIA = [Al2O3 / (Al2O3 + CaO* + Na2O + K2O)] × 100, where CaO* represents the content of CaO incorporated in the silicate fraction. The value of CIA provides a measure of the ratio of original/primary minerals to secondary products such as clay minerals. CIA values range from almost 50 in the case of fresh rocks to 100 for completely weathered rocks. Thus, CIA values increase with increasing weathering intensity, reaching 100 when all the Ca, Na, and K have been leached from the weathering residue. CIA = 50-60 indicates incipient weathering, CIA = 60-80 indicates intermediate weathering, and CIA > 80 indicates extreme weathering
[31]
. The Index of Compositional Variability (ICV) was also calculated to assess the association of detrital mineralogy and to determine the maturity of the sediments [ICV = (Fe2O3 + K2O + Na2O + CaO + MgO + MnO) / Al2O3]
[36]
(Table 6). According to
[36]
, the non-clay minerals have higher ICV values (pyroxenes and amphiboles have ICV values of 10–100), whereas the ICV value of feldspars ranges between 0.6 and 1, and clay minerals such as illite, montmorillonite, and kaolinite have ICV values of <0.3. Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW) is considered as a superior method consisting of a restricted number of components with consistent geochemical behavior during weathering. According to
[18]
, CIW is expressed as CIW = [Al2O3 / (Al2O3 + CaO + Na2O)] × 100. According to
[16]
, source area of weathering and elemental redistribution during diagenesis can be assessed by Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA=[(Al2O3-K2O)/(Al2O3+CaO+Na2O-K2O)]×100). A maximum PIA value (100) indicate completely altered mineral such as kaolinite and gibbsite and weathered plagioclase has a PIA value of 50.
Table 6. Weathering Parameters of the Onshore samples from Rasulpur to Subarnarekha River Mouth.

SL NO.

Sample No

CIA

ICV

CIW

PIA

CIA/1CV

1

P-1(1)

60.107

1.331

72.135

43.432

45.144

2

P-1(0)

60.506

1.227

70.061

46.867

49.306

3

P-5(1)

61.812

1.333

73.688

45.696

46.371

4

P-5(0)

58.170

1.325

67.991

43.725

43.911

5

P-7(1)

57.836

1.283

69.507

41.045

45.093

6

P-7(0)

60.428

1.317

71.905

44.467

45.873

7

P-10(1)

59.166

1.188

73.039

40.172

49.807

8

P-10(0)

59.456

1.271

71.754

42.318

46.797

9

P-11A(1)

61.466

1.070

75.874

42.476

57.468

10

P-11A(0)

62.888

1.159

73.823

48.075

54.260

11

P-13(1)

56.846

1.179

72.522

35.231

48.231

12

P-13(0)

57.731

1.114

72.259

37.625

51.820

13

P-15(1)

56.598

1.553

67.577

40.351

36.455

14

P-15(0)

57.025

1.198

70.508

37.903

47.588

15

P-16(1)

58.339

1.220

72.523

38.781

47.802

16

P-16(0)

59.046

1.154

72.786

40.168

51.182

17

P-17/5 (0)

59.837

1.092

72.016

42.927

54.777

18

P-17/1

57.631

1.167

70.000

39.960

49.373

19

P-18/0 (0)

58.560

1.054

71.875

40.035

55.561

20

P-18/1

60.198

0.918

74.623

40.868

65.587

21

P-19/3 (0)

60.766

1.007

74.220

42.638

60.343

22

P-19/2

58.944

0.940

73.118

39.559

62.717

23

P-20/1

56.769

1.149

69.593

38.341

49.397

24

P-20/3

57.973

1.016

72.107

38.372

57.074

25

P-21/1

60.252

0.909

75.236

40.336

66.259

26

P-21/3

56.997

0.942

74.096

33.920

60.510

27

P-22/1

56.689

1.085

70.628

36.952

52.242

28

P-22/3

57.942

0.911

73.640

36.626

63.637

29

P-23/1

57.643

1.302

68.597

41.673

44.269

30

P-23/3

61.121

1.117

72.452

45.483

54.708

31

P-24/1

57.906

1.159

69.581

41.128

49.964

32

P-24/5

57.618

1.217

69.238

40.835

47.327

33

P-25/1

54.530

1.540

65.065

38.339

35.409

34

P-25/3

57.179

1.117

70.184

38.648

51.199

35

PASS

0.850
Table 7. Weathering Parameters of the Nearshore samples from Rasulpur to Subarnarekha River Mouth.

SL NO

Sample No

CIA

ICV

CIW

PIA

CIA/1CV

1

BS-05(G)

72.459

1.012

85.729

56.980

71.625

2

BS-19(G)

70.969

0.975

83.121

56.349

72.768

3

BS-28(G)

71.905

0.958

83.958

57.548

75.083

4

BS-39(G)

74.707

1.008

88.580

59.045

74.125

5

BS-45(G)

71.967

1.007

85.315

56.322

71.499

6

BS-51(G)

73.167

0.995

86.802

57.458

73.502

7

BS-68(G)

74.570

1.059

89.300

58.076

70.394

8

BS-35(G)

73.579

0.983

86.452

58.689

74.845

9

BS-01(G)

64.624

1.132

73.569

52.465

57.096

10

BS-01

63.898

1.051

75.985

47.991

60.799

11

BS-10

61.021

0.881

74.661

42.751

69.246

12

BS-22

58.418

1.175

73.326

38.086

49.725

13

BS-37

61.006

0.869

72.462

45.196

70.198

14

BS-43

62.484

0.943

74.208

46.684

66.277

15

BS-47

57.314

1.018

72.442

36.431

56.319

16

BS-52

56.536

1.223

68.379

39.216

46.245

17

BS-61

59.652

1.115

72.038

42.458

53.502

18

BS-66

58.899

1.283

70.104

42.915

45.915
The average CIA value for the studied onshore samples is 60.0, and for the nearshore samples, it is 64.0 (Tables 6, 7). The average CIA value is higher for nearshore region samples. This clearly points towards intense to intermediate weathering in the source area for both onshore and nearshore sediments
[31]
. Similarly, the average CIW values of the studied onshore samples are 72.0, and for the nearshore samples, it is 77.15 (Tables 6, 7), indicating moderate to high weathering for both regions. The CIW index values are higher than CIA values for the analyzed samples due to the exclusion of K2O from the index. The PIA values of the onshore and nearshore samples range from 48.0 to 35.0 and 60.0 to 40.0 (Tables 6, 7) with an average of 41.56 and 46.63, respectively, suggesting moderate destruction of feldspars during source weathering, transport, sedimentation, and diagenesis. A maximum PIA value indicates completely altered minerals such as kaolinite and gibbsite, and weathered plagioclase has a PIA value of 50 (Tables 6, 7).
Furthermore, plotting of CIA vs. ICV after
[23]
for the studied onshore (average 60) and nearshore (average 64) samples shows that the samples of both geomorphological domains are immature in nature and have suffered intense to moderate weathering (Tables 6, 7; Figure 12). CIA measures the degree of alteration of feldspar to clay minerals during weathering; accordingly, Ca, Na, and K are largely removed by soil solution and increase the relative proportion of Al in the sediments, thus leading to higher CIA values
[31]
. If CIA is higher and ICV low, then the cause could be either high weathering of the source or recycling of previously weathered material
[31]
. The CIW index values are higher than CIA values for the analyzed samples due to the exclusion of K2O from the index.
Besides, the high ratio of Zr/Sc indicates the enrichment of zircon, thus suggesting sediment recycling (Tables 6, 7).
The bivariate plot (Figure 9) of SiO2 (reflective of quartz content) vs Al2O3 + K2O + Na2O (reflective of feldspar content) represents the chemical maturity trend as a function of climate, as proposed by
[44]
. The onshore samples revealed semi-arid to semi-humid climatic conditions, whereas nearshore samples mostly show arid to semi-humid conditions in the area from various sources tending towards increasing chemical maturity. Overall, the investigated samples of the study area showed variable degrees of chemical maturity extending from low to intermediate levels. The beach sands plotted in the semi-arid region may have experienced little or no chemical weathering and are far less mature than those plotted in the semi-humid area.
Figure 12. ICV-CIA plot (after Long et al., 2012b) for Onshore and Near shore sediment from Rasulpur to Subarnarekha River Mouth.
Figure 13. A-CN-K (Al2O3-CaO*+ Na2O-K2O) Ternary Diagram (Nesbitt and Young, 1984) for Onshore and Near shore sediment from Rasulpur to Subarnarekha River Mouth are also shown. (Numbers 1-5 denote trends of initial weathering profiles of various rock types: 1. Gabbro; 2. Tonalite: 3. Diorite; 4. Granodiorite; 5. Granite).
The Ternary plot of A-CN-K
[30]
was used to assess the composition of the source rock as well as the mobility of the element. The A-CN-K diagram (Tables 6, 7; Figure 13) is a more useful way of evaluating the chemical weathering trend compared to the CIA index
[30, 38]
. In the A-CN-K plot, the samples are plotted above the line joining plagioclase and potash feldspar, indicating moderate to intense chemical weathering in the source area
[30]
. The samples also show a linear trend parallel to the A-CN axis. The nearshore samples (collected from Rasalpur to Mandarmani area) show a linear trend towards illite on the A-K edge and do not show any inclination towards the K apex, which indicates the presence of more illite than other clay minerals like kaolinite and smectite. The inclination towards illite is interpreted to be the effect of potash metasomatism, where post-depositional processes convert kaolinite to illite; however, there is no conversion trend observed toward K2O. From the ternary diagram, the onshore and nearshore sediments mostly plot between the average granite and diorite line, suggesting the protolith of the area to be of intermediate to felsic source rocks. The sediment maturity can also be determined with the help of the SiO2/Al2O3 ratio, where a ratio >5 indicates mature sediments, while a ratio <5 is an indication of immaturity
[34, 35]
. The value of SiO2/Al2O3 in the studied onshore samples ranges from 5.4 to 17.12 (average = 10.1), and nearshore samples range from 3 to 14 (average = 6.5), indicating immature character to progressive maturity of sediments
[32, 35]
. The values of the K2O/Na2O ratio range from 1.34 to 2.11 (average = 1.64).
SEM studies indicate a number of micro features formed during different stages of transportation and deposition. Impact features were produced due to physical activity in the nearshore zone. Occasional contact with seawater caused chemical reactions resulting in various etch features, sometimes controlled by the properties of the grain. Perfect rounding of some grains indicates a long transport history. V forms are associated with grains from the beach and indicate a longer period and higher intensity of subaqueous agitation. Chemical abrasion produces solution pits and etch marks. Rounded grains, regular surfaces are produced due to mechanical processes and are reworked grains
[28, 29]
. Quartz, garnet, and ilmenite grains with irregular outlines as observed from SEM are derived from nearby sources, as irregular surfaces indicate a lesser degree of transportation. Few rounded grains of quartz are also observed, which have been produced from the well transportation of the grains
[4]
. These grains are probably derived from a nearby crystalline source. Intense wave action is also scavenging the grains from the seawall. Moreover, the area is cyclone-prone, so the sand dunes in the upper foreshore zone are undergoing mechanical abrasion in the aeolian and aqueous environment. The various microfeatures have been produced by different processes in different environments
[41]
. Wave action and aqueous collision result in grain fracturing, mechanical impact, weathering and removal of blocks, grinding, chemical action, dissolution, and precipitation. Medium to high-energy depositional environments prevail in the area. Mixing of these features suggests that the minerals present in the beach sand have undergone mechanical abrasion in the aeolian environment due to the collision of grains, producing conchoidal features.
3. Provenance
The dominance of SiO2 in the sediments is a result of the presence of free quartz derived from the felsic-dominated terrain. Al2O3/TiO2 ratios of the sediments can indicate their source rocks based on these elements associated with felsic and mafic minerals, respectively
[19]
depending on the abundance of the Al2O3/TiO2 ratio. Aluminum is hosted in feldspars, while titanium is in mafic minerals (olivine, pyroxene, hornblende, biotite, and ilmenite). Aluminum and titanium are stable during weathering, accumulate as residues, and remain constant during surficial weathering, volcanic processes, hydrothermal alteration, etc. The ranges of Al2O3/ TiO2 ratios such as 3–8, 8–21 and 21–70 suggest mafic, intermediate and felsic igneous source rocks, respectively
[19, 25, 33]
. The relative increase in the Al2O3/ TiO2 ratio in onshore and nearshore sediments are 14.40 and 18.5 respectively suggested they are derived from mainly intermediate to felsic source rocks. The concentration of TiO2 in Ilmenite ranges from 40.03 to 56.86% (avg-52%), depicting a metamorphic signature with an igneous source.
The combination of mineralogical and surface texture analysis (SEM-EDX) of grains has permitted the detection of a long history of mechanical andchemical processes generated during several stages and at different depositional environments. Several depositional stages were identified: the oldest corresponds to eolian environments, followed by energetic fluvial and coastal processes. Another younger stage is shown by chemical alterations acquired in marine environments, and is characterized by dissolution processes that affected old mechanical marks.
Based on the presence of the heavy mineral assemblages, the provenance of sediment indicates a mixed igneous and metamorphic source. Chotonagpur granite gneiss and Rajmahal traps are contributing Khondalites of the Eastern Ghats. The northernmost extension of the Eastern Ghats, i.e., the Nilgiri mountainous region of Odisha, is also a major contributor of heavy minerals through its khondalitic and gneissic provinces, as this is the nearest exposure from the confluence point of the Subarnarekha River.
4. Conclusion
The dominance of SiO2 in the sediments is a result of the presence of free quartz derived from the felsic-dominated terrains. In addition, the strong negative correlation between the SiO2 and Al2O3 shows that the variation in the chemical composition is in response to relative abundance of mineral quartz (in silt size fraction) and clay minerals in clay fraction. The strong positive correlation between the K2O and Al2O3 may be because of the presence of K-feldspar and clay minerals such as illite within the sediments, which is also supported from the K2O/Na2O ratio. TiO2 is low and consistent in the sediments contributed by a felsic-dominated recycled orogenic provenance. Trace-element concentrations in sediments result from the competing influence of provenance, weathering, diagenesis and sediment sorting
[9]
. Elevated Ba values may indicate the presence of felsic rocks, in association with K and Sr. The enrichment of K and Sr may be due to the effect of potash metasomatism where Ca has been leached out, replacing K within the feldspar lattice in association with Sr. The CIA, PIA value, and A-CN-K diagram reveal the paleo weathering condition of the source terrain, which is affected by intense to moderate weathering/intermediate weathering. Based on all geochemical data and various plots, it is evident that the samples from the nearshore area have undergone more weathering than the onshore samples. Furthermore, the ICV value, the plot of CIA vs. ICV, and the ratio of SiO2/Al2O3 indicate mineralogical immaturity to progressive maturity of the sediments. Based on the mineralogical assemblage, it can be concluded that the sediments are derived from a mixed igneous and metamorphic source. The different types of micro-textures exhibited by the sediments suggest that they result from mechanical, chemical, or mixed processes and are produced by various transportation processes under different environmental conditions.
Abbreviations

XRF

X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry Technique

ICV

Index of Compositional Variability

CIA

Chemical Index of Alteration

CIW

Chemical Index of Weathering Results

PIA

Plagioclase Index of Alteration
Acknowledgments
This paper was produced under Project ITEM-129 (FS: 2020-22) of OPEC-I, M&CSD, GSI. Thanks are accorded to Shri. A. V. Gangadharan (Retd.), DyDG& HOD, M&CSD, Shri. Basab Mukhopadhyay, DyDG & HOD, M&CSD, Shri. Dharanidhar Panigrahy, DyDG, OPEC-I, M&CSD for providing the technical, financial, and all other logistical support for the project. Thanks are also extended to all Directors and officers associated with the project, whose suggestions substantially improved the quality of the project. Authors are also thankful to all surveyors associated with the project, the Officers of the Chemical Division, OPEC-I, M&CSD, Officers of the Chemical Division, ER, Officers of the Paleontology Division-1, GSI, CHQ, Kolkata for providing their laboratory support.
Author Contributions
Priyanka Dey Guha: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing
Data Availability Statemant
The data which have been used for the manuscript were generated in the Field Item -129 of Geological Survey Of India and posted to a trusted repository, and the data repository is allowing journal and reviewer access to posted data.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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    Guha, P. D., Mukherjee, S., Sahoo, A. K., Dutta, S., Kumar, A. A., et al. (2026). Geochemical Characterization of Rasulpur - Subarnarekha River Mouths Estuarine Complex, EC of India: Provenance, Palaeo Weathering and Depositional Environment. Earth Sciences, 15(1), 10-29. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.earth.20261501.12

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    Guha, P. D.; Mukherjee, S.; Sahoo, A. K.; Dutta, S.; Kumar, A. A., et al. Geochemical Characterization of Rasulpur - Subarnarekha River Mouths Estuarine Complex, EC of India: Provenance, Palaeo Weathering and Depositional Environment. Earth Sci. 2026, 15(1), 10-29. doi: 10.11648/j.earth.20261501.12

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    Guha PD, Mukherjee S, Sahoo AK, Dutta S, Kumar AA, et al. Geochemical Characterization of Rasulpur - Subarnarekha River Mouths Estuarine Complex, EC of India: Provenance, Palaeo Weathering and Depositional Environment. Earth Sci. 2026;15(1):10-29. doi: 10.11648/j.earth.20261501.12

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  • @article{10.11648/j.earth.20261501.12,
  author = {Priyanka Dey Guha and Snehalata Mukherjee and Ashwin Kumar Sahoo and Subhankar Dutta and Adukadukkam Anil Kumar and Cheruvathoor Vannathan Gopalan},
  title = {Geochemical Characterization of Rasulpur - Subarnarekha River Mouths Estuarine Complex, EC of India: Provenance, Palaeo Weathering and Depositional Environment},
  journal = {Earth Sciences},
  volume = {15},
  number = {1},
  pages = {10-29},
  doi = {10.11648/j.earth.20261501.12},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.earth.20261501.12},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.earth.20261501.12},
  abstract = {Major and trace element geochemistry of sediments is a very useful tool for understanding the provenance, intensity of weathering, tectonic settings, and depositional environment of the sediments. Sediments collected from different geomorphic domains (onshore and nearshore) of Rasulpur to Subarnarekha River mouths estuarine complex, East coast of India, were analyzed for their geochemical (major, trace contents) and mineralogical characteristics to determine their provenance, compositional maturity, paleo-weathering condition, and depositional environment. From geochemical studies, it is evident that the samples from the nearshore area suffered more weathering than the onshore samples. Geochemistry of the sediments suggests the protolith of the area to be of intermediate to felsic source rocks. A relative increase in the Al2O3/TiO2 ratio in sediments also suggests that they are derived mainly from intermediate to felsic source rocks. A strong positive correlation between Fe2O3, MnO, K2O, MgO, CaO, P2O5, and major oxides with respect to Al2O3 indicates that they are associated with micaceous/clay minerals. The Index of Compositional Variability (ICV) indicating low compositional and mineralogical maturity of the sediments. The Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) value clearly pointing towards intense to intermediate weathering in the source area sediments. Similarly, Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW) results also supporting the same trend of weathering. The results of Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA) suggesting moderate destruction of feldspars during source weathering, transport, sedimentation, and diagenesis. The Ternary plot of A-CN-K and the binary plot of CIA/ICV also suggest that both geomorphological domains are immature in nature and suffered intense to moderate weathering. Trace-element concentrations in sediments result from the competing influence of provenance, weathering, diagenesis, and sediment sorting. The felsic province is also corroborated by elevated values of Ba, K, and Sr. EPMA analysis reveals the presence of heavy minerals comprising Ilmenite, garnet as major constituents followed by sphene and rutile. Other minerals include sphene, epidote, amphibole, pyroxene, biotite, apatite, chlorite, tourmaline, muscovite, and alumino-silicate. The concentration of TiO2 in Ilmenitedepicting a metamorphic signature with an igneous source. Micro-textural studies reveal different types of surface features of the grains, the various micro features have been produced by different transportational processes under different environmental conditions. Based on all geochemical and mineralogical data and different plots, it is evident that the sediments from both geomorphological domains are immature in nature and suffered intense to moderate weathering derived from mixed igneous and metamorphic sources.},
 year = {2026}
}

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  • TY  - JOUR
T1  - Geochemical Characterization of Rasulpur - Subarnarekha River Mouths Estuarine Complex, EC of India: Provenance, Palaeo Weathering and Depositional Environment
AU  - Priyanka Dey Guha
AU  - Snehalata Mukherjee
AU  - Ashwin Kumar Sahoo
AU  - Subhankar Dutta
AU  - Adukadukkam Anil Kumar
AU  - Cheruvathoor Vannathan Gopalan
Y1  - 2026/02/02
PY  - 2026
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.earth.20261501.12
DO  - 10.11648/j.earth.20261501.12
T2  - Earth Sciences
JF  - Earth Sciences
JO  - Earth Sciences
SP  - 10
EP  - 29
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2328-5982
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.earth.20261501.12
AB  - Major and trace element geochemistry of sediments is a very useful tool for understanding the provenance, intensity of weathering, tectonic settings, and depositional environment of the sediments. Sediments collected from different geomorphic domains (onshore and nearshore) of Rasulpur to Subarnarekha River mouths estuarine complex, East coast of India, were analyzed for their geochemical (major, trace contents) and mineralogical characteristics to determine their provenance, compositional maturity, paleo-weathering condition, and depositional environment. From geochemical studies, it is evident that the samples from the nearshore area suffered more weathering than the onshore samples. Geochemistry of the sediments suggests the protolith of the area to be of intermediate to felsic source rocks. A relative increase in the Al2O3/TiO2 ratio in sediments also suggests that they are derived mainly from intermediate to felsic source rocks. A strong positive correlation between Fe2O3, MnO, K2O, MgO, CaO, P2O5, and major oxides with respect to Al2O3 indicates that they are associated with micaceous/clay minerals. The Index of Compositional Variability (ICV) indicating low compositional and mineralogical maturity of the sediments. The Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) value clearly pointing towards intense to intermediate weathering in the source area sediments. Similarly, Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW) results also supporting the same trend of weathering. The results of Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA) suggesting moderate destruction of feldspars during source weathering, transport, sedimentation, and diagenesis. The Ternary plot of A-CN-K and the binary plot of CIA/ICV also suggest that both geomorphological domains are immature in nature and suffered intense to moderate weathering. Trace-element concentrations in sediments result from the competing influence of provenance, weathering, diagenesis, and sediment sorting. The felsic province is also corroborated by elevated values of Ba, K, and Sr. EPMA analysis reveals the presence of heavy minerals comprising Ilmenite, garnet as major constituents followed by sphene and rutile. Other minerals include sphene, epidote, amphibole, pyroxene, biotite, apatite, chlorite, tourmaline, muscovite, and alumino-silicate. The concentration of TiO2 in Ilmenitedepicting a metamorphic signature with an igneous source. Micro-textural studies reveal different types of surface features of the grains, the various micro features have been produced by different transportational processes under different environmental conditions. Based on all geochemical and mineralogical data and different plots, it is evident that the sediments from both geomorphological domains are immature in nature and suffered intense to moderate weathering derived from mixed igneous and metamorphic sources.
VL  - 15
IS  - 1
ER  -

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Author Information

  • Priyanka Dey Guha

    OPEC-I, Marine & Coastal Survey Division, Geological Survey of India, Kolkata, India

    Contact Email

    http://orcid.org/0009-0004-0404-7196

  • Snehalata Mukherjee

    OPEC-I, Marine & Coastal Survey Division, Geological Survey of India, Kolkata, India

  • Ashwin Kumar Sahoo

    OPEC-I, Marine & Coastal Survey Division, Geological Survey of India, Kolkata, India

  • Subhankar Dutta

    OPEC-IV, Marine & Coastal Survey Division, Geological Survey of India, Chennai, India

    http://orcid.org/0009-0005-1365-0058

  • Adukadukkam Anil Kumar

    PSS, P&MN-1, CHQ, Geological Survey of India, Kolkata, India

    http://orcid.org/0009-0000-7766-599X

  • Cheruvathoor Vannathan Gopalan

    OPWC-I, Marine & Coastal Survey Division, Geological Survey of India, Mangalore, India

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